Y11 Ice on the Land

1. Title: How has climate change affected the global distribution of ice?

Key Idea:

The amount of ice on a global and 

continental scale has changed in the 

past.

Temperature Fluctuations

We are all aware of Global Warming caused by the enhanced Greenhouse Effect. We can begin to appreciate its possible effect on our weather and on sea levels.

Although the current warming trend may be linked to human activities, climatic variation in the past has been entirely a natural phenomenon linked, in part, to subtle changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun or alterations in the global pattern of ocean currents that are fundamental to the redistribution of heat around the planet.

The power of oceanic changes can be seen in the currents off the west coast of South America whose shifts result in the El Nino effect. El Nino has a significant impact on rainfall patterns and the development of tropical storms in some parts of the world.

The graph below illustrates how Global Temperatures have varied over the last half million years. Blue areas below the horizontal line indicate Glacial Periods (cold episodes) while red areas above the line indicate "Interglacials" (warm episodes).

Q. From the graph below, can you tell when the last Ice Age in the Pleistocene began? How many years, approximately, before the present was it?












Evidence from ICE CORES and DEEPSEA SEDIMENT ANALYSES suggest that there have been up to 20 Glacials during the Pleistocene.

Activity: research how Ice Cores and Deep Sea Sediments are used to track past climate change.

During each of these cold spells, ice spread southward in the Southern Hemisphere to cover large parts of Europe and North America. Just 18,000 years ago ice reached its maximum extent during the last glacial period (see map B, pp 124 of AQA text). The map below shows the areas affected.

This map views the world from above the North Pole. The blue areas show the extent of the last glacial maximum.

Notice the glacial areas that are separated from the main blocks... why are they there?

Activity: Can you see where the UK is? 

Describe the extent of ice cover at the last glacial max in both Europe and in North America. You may find it useful to look at a map of the world while you do this.

What did this mean for the UK?
About three quarters of the British Isles would have been covered in ice all year. In some places this would have been over 1,000m thick. Areas not ice covered (southern parts) would have experienced Tundra/Sub-Arctic conditions. This means that most of the year would have been freezing cold, the growing season would have been very short, the sub-surface of the land would have been permanently frozen... life would have been tough for even the toughest of creatures! 

The following Web Extracts give an idea of the conditions that would have existed in the South East of present day UK...

Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. Tundra comes from the Finnish word tunturia, meaning treeless plain. It is noted for its frost-moulded landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little precipitation, poor nutrients, and short growing seasons.

Characteristics of Tundra 

1. Extremely cold climate 
2. Low biotic diversity 
3. Simple vegetation structure 
4. Limitation of drainage 
5. Short season of growth and reproduction 
6. Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material 
7. Large population oscillations

Extract: http://www.admwebstudios.co.uk/Biodiversity4.htm

Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the North Pole and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days. The average winter temperature is -34° C (-30° F), but the average summer temperature is 3-12° C (37-54° F), which enables this biome to sustain life. Rainfall may vary in different regions of the arctic. Yearly precipitation, including melting snow, is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil is formed slowly. A layer of permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost exists, consisting mostly of gravel and finer material. When water saturates the upper surface, bogs and ponds may form, providing moisture for plants. There are no deep root systems in the vegetation of the arctic tundra; however, there are still a wide variety of plants that are able to resist the cold climate. There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the arctic and sub arctic, and these include:

Low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts, and grasses
400 varieties of flowers
crustose and foliose lichen

All of the plants are adapted to sweeping winds and disturbances of the soil. Plants are short and group together to resist the cold temperatures and are protected by the snow during the winter. They can carry out photosynthesis at low temperatures and low light intensities. The growing seasons are short and most plants reproduce by budding and division rather than sexually by flowering. The fauna in the arctic is also diverse:

Herbivorous mammals: lemmings, voles, caribou, arctic hares and squirrels
Carnivorous mammals: arctic foxes, wolves, and polar bears
Migratory birds: ravens, snow buntings, falcons, loons, ravens, sandpipers, terns, snow birds, and various species of gulls
Insects: mosquitoes, flies, moths, grasshoppers, black flies and arctic bumble bees
Fish: cod, flatfish, salmon, and trout.

Animals are adapted to handle long, cold winters and to breed and raise young quickly in the summer. Animals such as mammals and birds also have additional insulation from fat. Many animals hibernate during the winter because food is not abundant. Another alternative is to migrate south in the winter, like birds do. Reptiles and amphibians are few or absent because of the extremely cold temperatures. Because of constant immigration and emigration, the population continually oscillates.

The map(right) shows the extent of the Glacial Maximum at about 18,000 years BP and the areas that remained glaciated after this time. These latter areas are highlands and would have seen the persistence of glacial environments until about 10,000 years BP.

You should be able to describe the maximum extent of glaciation in the British Isles. 

Can you name the areas of Valley glaciation too?

Check your recall/progress....

During the last glacial maximum, 18,000 years BP (before present), there were FOUR ICE SHEETS in the Northern Hemisphere...

The Scandinavian Ice Sheet 
The Greenland Ice Sheet
The Laurentide Ice Sheet (Central and Eastern North America)
Cordilleran Ice Sheet (Western Cordillera/Rocky Mts in North America)

See Fig. B on page 124 of course companion. Make sure that you are able to describe the distribution of Northern Hemisphere Ice Sheets.

Fig C shows the Ice Coverage in the UK and movement of Ice from the source areas. Notice that earlier in the Pleistocene, coverage was even more extensive.

Q. Can you explain why early humans and wildlife was able to migrate with relative ease from mainland Europe to the British Isles. The same answer explains the movement of animals and humans into the Americas from Asia.

Summary:

The Ice Age in Britain began about 1,000,000 years ago and lasted until about 10,000 years ago. During this time temperatures fluctuated and ice advanced and retreated four times. The northern and eastern parts of the British Isles were covered in ice.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMQ21p93JZc

Zondle: Climate Change and Glaciation

2. Title:   Ice Sheets, Ice Caps and 
           Glaciers
Aim:   To understand the difference 
            between types of ice on the land 
            and to know how/why glaciers 
            move.


Types of Ice on the Land.
Definitions:

Ice Sheet:
A large body of ice over 50,000 square km 

Ice Cap (or Ice Field):
A smaller body of ice (less than 50,000 square km ) usually located in mountainous areas

Glacier:
A "finger" of ice, usually extending downhill from an ice cap, and occupying a valley

Today there are two large areas of ice globally. These are called “ice sheets”...

     One on Antarctica and the other, smaller one, on Greenland.
         The Antarctic ice sheet covers 14 million km2, holds 90% of all the world’s fresh water and is several kilometres thick in places.

The Greenland ice sheet covers an area of 1.7 million km2 (over 80% of Greenland) and is currently showing evidence of melting due to global warming (Map pp 125 of text).

Ice Caps - present in some high mountain ranges where temperatures are lower e.g. Iceland, Himalayan Plateau and the European Alps.

View of a small Valley Glacier

Glaciers - frequently follow former 
drainage systems and extend into lower 
altitudes where melting converts the ice into 
running water (glacial outflow stream). Glaciers
are found in every continent of the world and in 
some 47 individual countries.









Link below to movie extract about Glacier in 
Yosemite.
Although a small glacier and one suffering Global 
Warming induced retreat, this little movie note shows 
some nice features about the movement of glaciers. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgnzSTY5zRg

3. Title: What causes Glaciers to move?

Aim:  To know how and why glaciers move, to 
         understand the glacial budget and 
         how it influences the position (or extent)
         of a glacier.

What causes Ice to move?
Ice on the land moves generally under the influence of gravity (from higher to lower land) although accumulation of thick layers of ice also engenders squeezing and spreading rather like a blob of Playdo left on a table for an hour. In addition to these factors, it must be recognised that many valley glaciers also have liquid water at their base. This is present despite the very low temperatures because as weight of ice adds pressure, the freezing point of water is reduced to BELOW zero degrees C! The consequence of this liquid water is that it lubricates the zone between ice and rock and thus encourages movement of the glacier over the land.

Movement of ice, in turn, scrapes and scours the land to create an array of land-forms specifically associated with glaciation.

The photograph right shows a valley glacier as it enters the sea. 

You can see that it extends down from highland to its mouth and that its surface is very rugged and uneven. This is because , as it moves, the ice is fractured and cracks to form what are called crevasses.

Notice, too, that the glacier sits in a valley. This is likely to have been a pre-existing river valley that subsequently been occupied by ice due to a fall in temperature. Today, the world is experiencing a rise in average temperature, so this glacier, in common with most, will be suffering from retreat due to increased melting.

Because of the gradient, this glacier will be accumulating snow and ice at its source, this material will be moved downhill toward its "snout" where ablation (or loss of snow/ice) will occur. In this example, "calving" of ice bergs into the sea will cause the glacier to end, but in non-marine situations, the glacier will essentially melt and disappear as it reaches lower altitudes and higher temperatures.

Clearly, then, we can understand glaciers as systems... i.e. they have Inputs, Transfers/Processes and Outputs.

For example:
Inputs would include snowfall and avalanches;
Processes would include the movement of ice down hill and the erosion of the land;
Outputs would include losses from the glacier as melt water or iceberg calving.

Lets look at this in a less abstract way...

Notice:
A ZONE OF ACCUMULATION is identified where INPUTS exceed OUTPUTS.

The ZONE OF ABLATION is where OUTPUTS exceed INPUTS.

Remember, however, that the position of these zones may shift up or down the glacier depending on the prevailing temperature conditions...

Q. Would the transition between the two zones move uphill or downhill in the winter? Why?

The glacier budget is the balance between inputs (accumulation) and outputs (ablation).

If accumulation exceeds ablation (i.e. inputs exceed ablation) over several years, the glacier will retreat. This means that its snout will become closer to its source and that the glacier will thus be shorter.

Note: accumulation will tend to dominate at the top of the glacier (near to its source) whereas ablation dominates at the snout due to the varying effect of altitude on temperature and precipitation.
Ablation will also dominate in the summer while accumulation dominates the winter. 
Over longer periods, climate changes will also alter the relative dominance of Ablation and Accumulation.

The photographs below show the recession of the South Cascades Glacier in North Western USA (see map below)

 
On page 127 of the course text, a table is presented that allows you to work out the Net Glacial Budget for the South Cascades Glacier from 1985 to 2005. 
The graph below shows this data... 

Activity: 
1. Describe what the graph shows.
2. Suggest reasons for the change that you have described.
3. Do you think that the changes you have described and explained are evidence for Global Warming? Explain your answer carefully.

Activity: Check the development of your Glacial Vocab... link up the terms on the left with their meanings on the right...

Activities:
Using the course text page 127...Complete task 2 and 3. You should refer also to the photographs above showing the retreat of the South Cascades Glacier.

Zondle: Glacial Budget

4. Title: Which Processes Operate in Glacial Areas

Aims: To be able to name, describe and explain glacial processes that shape the land.

In Geography, a PROCESS is something that happens... for example erosion. Processes are responsible for the shaping of the landscape. In doing this they create a variety of FEATURES. Features are things that we can see e.g. a mountain or a valley. Consider... what processes are responsible for the formation of Young Fold Mountains?

Key Idea: Ice is a powerful force shaping the land as a result of weathering, erosion, transport and deposition. These four sets of processes are sometimes referred to as GEOMORPHOLOGICAL processes and they can work in association with rivers, waves in the sea, wind and, of course ice.

Yosemite Nature Notes... Rockfall
Mt Ranier... Rockfall
The video links above illustrates some of the dramatic consequences of geomorphological processes at work. These rockfalls may have been caused by a combination of factors and they will contribute to features such as Tallus (or scree slopes), further erosion and ultimately their components will be deposited at some point.

Some definitions of key terms:

Erosion - the breakdown of material involving movement such as flowing water, wind or the movement of ice.
Weathering - the breakdown of material, but not involving movement as an integral part of the process.
Transport - the movement of material from one place to another. This requires energy... the bigger the material being moved, the more energy.
Deposition - When the energy for transportation reduces, movement cannot be sustained and material is dropped.

Key Processes for Ice on the Land:

Weathering - Just one process...

   Freeze-thaw weathering As the animation shows, Freeze-Thaw Weathering involves the repeated freezing and melting of water that has penetrated into the fabric of rock. Because water expands as it freezes, ice exerts pressure on the surrounding rock. Eventually, during a melting episode, chunks of rock may become detached and fall off the mountain side (Q. Why doesn't the rock tend to fall during a freezing phase?) The accumulated debris at the bottom of many cliffs is the result of this process... "Scree Slopes"

Erosion - Two processes to know...

   Abrasion - Abrasion occurs when rocks and stones become embedded in the base and sides of the glacier. These are then rubbed against the bedrock (at the bottom of the glacier) and rock faces (at the sides of the glacier) as the glacier moves. This causes the wearing away of the landscape as the glacier behaves like sandpaper. It leaves behind smooth polished surfaces which may have scratches in them called striations. Striations are carved out by angular debris embedded in the base of the glacier (sourced from gcse bitesize )

 This illustration indicates how ice moving from right to left over an irregularity in the bed would scrape the up-flow side (ABRASION) smoothing and rounding the profile and probably leaving behind STRIATIONS (see illustration below). On the lee - side, however, PLUCKING takes place leaving behind a steep edge with a "blocky" appearance.

The photograph below shows the sign of plucking described above... The "blocky" appearance is quite clear... the ice was travelling approximately from left to right in this location.

   Plucking - Plucking occurs when rocks and stones become frozen to the base or sides of the glacier and are plucked from the ground or rock face as the glacier moves. It leaves behind a jagged landscape (sourced from gcse bitesize )

Franze Joseph Glacier 

Landscape changes as a result of glaciation... simulation
The simulation shows how a fluvial landscape might be transformed by several episodes of glaciation.

Key points:
1. Ice first accumulates in the highest areas due to colder conditions at altitude.
2. If conditions are cold enough (positive glacial budget), glaciers will extend down into lower altitudes.
3. Growth and retreat may occur in episodes... periods of glacier extension followed by periods of retreat.
4. As glaciers grow, they also move (due to the effect of gravity, squeezing and basal slippage).
5. Movement of glaciers causes the landscape to be eroded and re-shaped, material to be transported (moved from one place to another) and material, eventually, to be deposited.
6. The significant changes in the landscape are the deepening and widening of valleys; valley cross-section becoming U - shaped; creation of sharp (knife-edged) ridges; formation of pointed mountain peaks... Overall, landscapes tend to become more rugged and dramatic as a result of glaciation of this type (Valley Glaciers and Ice Caps... Ice Sheets can lead to a "planed-off" surface that is not so rugged and dramatic!).

Homework 1

1. Which erosional process is most likely in the Bergschrund itself... Plucking or Abrasion?

2. Explain your answer.

Note:
Write your answer into your exercise book and include a copy of the illustration left to accompany it.

Zondle: Processes in glacial areas

5. Process Operating in Glaciated Areas continued.

Aims: 

To be able to name, describe and explain glacial processes that shape the land.

Glacial Movement:
Movement of glaciers is clearly responsible for erosion, transport and deposition, however, movement is a process too.

Time lapse of glacial movement - VIEW (alternative link to You Tube) also Calving Glacier

It results from the combination of the effect of gravity pulling ice downhill, the lubricating effect of melt-water (particularly below the glacier) - causing Basal Slip - and from the slow squeezing or plastic spreading effect of large quantities of ice as they settle and deform... imagine a blob of ice cream dropped onto a surface... its mass will tend to spread outward from its centre.

Glacial Transportation:
As a glacier moves it carries with it a variety of material that has accumulated from Freeze-Thaw weathering, wind or water transported material, avalanche debris and material that has been entrained after being plucked from the bed, back and sides of the glacial valley.

Key things to remember:
Material is carried... ON, IN, BELOW and pushed IN FRONT of glaciers.
Material transported (and deposited) by glaciers is termed MORAINE
MORAINE is characteristically comprised of angular particles, but of very varied size (Dust to house sized boulders)... see Boulder Clay below.

In this illustration, the red arrow points out an end moraine left behind as the glacier has retreated. The water below the glacier snout has been trapped/contained by this accumulated material.

Can you spot the evidence for glacial calving?

Can you see any other moraines?

In the photo, right, there are very clear accumulations of moraine along the sides of the active glacier, but you can also see that these extend into the area that is no longer glaciated. Such ridges of deposited material will be evident long after all the ice has melted.

Glacial Deposition:
Deposition refers to material that was entrained and transported that is subsequently dropped. In glacial systems, DEPOSITION results from the loss of ice (Ablation) which removes the medium of transport so that material is dropped/DEPOSITED.

"Young" hummocky ground deposited as a glacier retreats.

As such, Moraines accumulate at the end of glaciers and on the ground as glaciers retreat (often leaving behind a "hummocky" surface - See right and below). Moraines will also accumulate along the sides of glaciers while they are present and be left as residual features when the glacier has melted away. The various types of Moraines are thus regarded as DEPOSITIONAL features.


In the illustrations, above right and below, we see typical hummocky surfaces that are left behind by retreating glaciers. Notice the varied sediment size evident in photo right. A similar variety would be found in the photo below if 
excavation was made.

Vegetated hummocky surface

End Moraines may be "Bulldozed" further down- valley if a glacier in retreat begins to re-advance due to a down-turn in temperatures (see photographs above).

Material that has been subject to erosion, weathering and then transportation by ice before being deposited is characteristically variable in size and called BOULDER CLAY (See photo right). The variation in size reflects the pulverization of some material (called "Rock Flour") while other material might not have been exposed to such powerful force or exposed for much less time... hence it remains of large size.


Activity: 
a) Make sure that you can list the main glacial processes and their associated sub-processes (where relevant).
b) Be able to describe how and where the processes take place.
c) Be able to identify evidence that they have taken place... what signs would they leave behind.

Zondle: Glacial processes 2

6. Glacial Features of Erosion

Aims:

To recognise, be able to name and explain the formation of land forms created by glaciation Erosion.  

Q.
What is the difference between a PROCESS and a FEATURE.

Broadly, glacial features are divided into two main groups... Features of Erosion and Features of Deposition.

Erosion Features can be further sub-divided into Features of Highland Glaciation and Features of Lowland Glaciation.

Check back to the aim of this section... keep it in mind as you progress through the next section.

For the GCSE, you are expected to know the names of features, be able to recognise them on maps, photos and sketches, produce your own sketches to show them and to be able to explain how they have formed.

The following is a list of the erosion features that you need to know arranged more or less by altitude. You may find it easier to learn them if you follow this approach...

• Pyramidal Peak
• Arete
• Corrie
• Glacial Trough (U-Shaped Valley) + Hanging Valley
• Truncated Spurs
• Ribbon Lake
• Roche Moutonne (This will be dealt with separately)

So, lets check out what they look like... The land sketch, left, identifies the above listed features (except Roche Moutonne) and includes a couple of additional associated features.

Homework 2:
A) Identify and name as many of the features on land sketch left as you can. Write the number and the feature name in your exercise book.
B) Print out the photograph below,stick it in your book and label examples of the features you have listed in A) above. 

Formation of a Corrie.

A corrie is basically a large armchair shaped depression in the side of a mountain. It was formed by ice and has the following key features:

A. Steep back wall
B. Over-deepened bottom (forming a bowl)
C. A lip at the down-slope end.

It is useful to have a stock definition at your disposal for examinations... learn one!

The Corrie can be viewed as a "keystone" feature when learning about Glacial Features of Erosion... if you understand its formation, it helps when explaining the formation of other features such as Pyramidal Peaks and Aretes.

When describing/explaining the formation of features, diagrams can make your task easier, the result clearer... but you should ensure that annotations are sequenced/numbered to guide the reader logically though your explanation e.g.

With the aid of a sketch, describe the shape of a corrie and explain how it is formed.

A corrie is a large hollow in the side of a mountain formed where a glacier developed in the last ice age. These hollows are often described as armchair-shaped because they have a steep back-wall (A above) and "arms" either side formed by aretes. Their base is frequently "over-deepened" (B above), like a well-used favourite armchair so that the opening downhill is marked by the presence of a slightly raised lip (C above).

Corries form as explained in the sketch below...

Q. Apart from a title, what would you add to the second diagram to improve it? (Tip - read the annotations... what has been referred to, but not illustrated?).

Activity:
For each of the other erosion features listed above, investigate and make sure that you can describe them and explain how they are formed with the aid of your own hand drawn sketches.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/landforms-of-upland-glaciation-in-loch-lomond/1140.html - Check out this animated explanation of some of the key features of glacial erosion. Note the examples used in the video are from Scotland where a Tarn is referred to as a Lochan...

Quotation from GCSE Bitesize...

"Types of question

In the exam, questions might say, "You may use diagrams to illustrate your answer". This is a strong hint that you should use a sketch. Without a diagram your answer will need to be very good to get full marks. With a diagram it is easier to explain and you give yourself a better chance of scoring full marks.

On the other hand, the question may say, "With the aid of a diagram explain the formation of - (for example, a pyramidal peak)" . In this case you cannot get full marks without a diagram."

Zondle: Features of Glacial Erosion

Added Extra: Roche Moutonne

Roche Moutonne (lit. sheeps back rock) are a classic feature of glaciation. They appear in sizes from a few metres length to hundreds of metres. They form where a glacier encounters bumps in the bedrock or more resistant outcrops of rock.   

The ice rides up and around the protruding rock, abrading and... ...smoothing irregularities on the Stoss (upstream) side, but plucking away the lee (downstream) side. In consequence a tear-drop shaped rock outcrop is formed where the smooth pointed end points in the direction the glacier traveled from (up-glacier). The Stoss side may show striations and polishing micro-features.

Watch Out! 
Drumlins are also tear-drop shaped features of glaciation... but formed by deposition processes. As such they are made of Boulder Clay rather than bed rock.


Practice questions re. the formation of glacial features. Click this link to visit bitesize where some questions and answers are provided. Note, some of the answers could be improved!

7. Land-forms of glacial transportation and deposition.

Aims:

To recognise, be able to name and explain the formation of land forms created by glaciation Transport and Deposition.  

As previously mentioned, glaciers move material as the travel downhill... where the ice melts, this material is deposited. The glacial system can be regarded rather like a conveyor-belt... e.g. like those at the check-out in supermarkets... The belt takes the place of the ice and the produce is bits of rock and debris in, on and under the glacier (of course there is no till or glamorous check-out attendant in a real glacier!)

There are five key types of morain that you need to know about:

1. Ground Morain  - Material moved along below the glacier that is left behind when the glacier ice melts.
2. Lateral Morain - Material that accumulates at the sides of glaciers. Mostly comprised of tallus that has fallen from the valley sides due to the action of freeze-thaw weathering.
3. Medial Morain - When two glaciers meet/converge, their respective lateral moraines merge to form a line of morain running down the middle of the main glacier.
4. End Morain - Material that accumulates at the end of a glacier.
5. Terminal Morain - The end moraine that represents the furthest advance of the glacier stretches across the width of a valley and may be tens of metres high. As it is the furthest of the end moraines, it is called the Terminal Morain.

Activity:
Study the three photographs below. Which of the different types of moraine are you able to spot? (Print and complete the table below the photos to answer this question).

Photo A

Photo B

Photo C

Activity:
For the type(s) of moraine that are missing from the photographs, search the WWW for images to add to your exercise book.

Zondle: Features of Glacial Transport and Deposition

Homework 3

Printout and complete the Glacial Criss-cross puzzle...

8 Interpretation of Ordnance Survey Maps.

Aims: 
To be able to recognise glacial features on OS maps using contour patterns.


Maps are information rich systems and can be tricky to use well. To improve your skills, practice is essential. Specifically for the interpetation of contours, it is useful to try to visualise what the patterns of lines would look like in 3D...

Activity:
For each of the map extracts below...
a) Make a simplified sketch of the contour pattern, rocky outcrops and significant water features (use colour to add clarity to your sketches and put each in a frame).
b) Next to each contour sketch, draw a cross sectional view to show the 3D appearance of the feature described by the contour pattern.
c) Name each of the features.
d) From the internet, obtain a photograph of each type of feature.
Note: It should be clear from your sketches which map extract you are illustrating.

Example...

Above right is a sketch of the contour pattern shown in the map extract to the left. Below is the cross sectional view cutting through the map and sketch from SW to NE. It reveals that the    feature is a Pyramidal Peak.

This photo shows an example of a Pyramidal Peak. Actually it is the same one as shown on the map extract (Mt Snowdon), but viewed from the NE (Pyg Track). The tarn below the steep back wall is Llyn Glaslyn (For those who were on the field trip, this is the first tarn that we dropped down to after visiting the disused mine on the first day).




Map Extracts:
Feel free to print these to accompany your work.

9 The Opportunities for Tourism in Glacial Areas.

Aims: 
To know the attractions that glacial areas such as the European Alps offer for tourists.

To understand the need for responsible tourism and sustainable management of tourism in these areas.

From the map (right) you can see that the European Alps extend from South Eastern France northwards along the border between France and Italy, through the border regions of Switzerland and Italy and into Austria. They form a physical divide between these countries that, in part explains the position of their national borders. Today these YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS (ref. Restless Earth), provide the home for many communities, but also attract a great many tourists due to their spectacular scenery, unique environments and the array of recreational activities that can be pursued in them. 

Attractions for Tourists In terms of their attractions for tourists, it is useful to consider winter attractions and summer attractions:

Winter:

• Downhill Skiing, 
• Snowboarding, 
• Cross-country skiing, 
• Snow-shoeing, 
• Sledging and Luge; 
• Winter mountaineering and Ice Climbing.

Summer:

• Paragliding; 
• Walking, 
• Cultural and Historical sites and activities such as festivals. 
• Visits to glaciers (and inside them in places), 
• Horse-riding and trekking, 
• Mountain biking, 
• Kayaking and Rafting, 
• Rock-Climbing.
• Mountaineering - See video of a Guided ascent of the Matterhorne in Switzerland (Fixed ropes and a bit crowded... )

       Alternatively... some real mountaineering by some "old guys"  
       on a serious North Face! 30 minutes, so make sure you have 
       time.

However, do not forget that in addition to the natural environment, visitors are attracted by infrastructure and entertainment opportunities too... 

In Alpine towns and villages, there are:

• Museums, 
• Shops, 
• Hotels, restaurants and cafes

   Many also offer 

•    Spas
•    Heated pools
•    Information and education/training for   visitors.

To assist visitors to gain access top venues and the mountains there may be:

• Cable cars, 
• Cog railways and 
• Bus services. 

Note: Remember that in Geography it is better to talk about "Somewhere" rather than "Anywhere"... So, attach this information to a case study e.g. Chamonix in the French Alps.

Impacts of Tourism (e.g. in the French Alps)
Any area that attracts large numbers of visitors will benefit economically, but there may also be negative impacts that require careful management to prevent them from damaging the very things people come to visit and to prevent conflicts between different types of visitors and the needs of local people. 

Globally, tourism is the biggest industry (economically). As such, no community is likely to want to allow it to decline in their area as it will provide jobs, income, support the development of beneficial infrastructure that locals can use among other advantages. To ensure that it is sustainable, however, careful management and cooperation is often needed. In the French Alpine resort of the Chamonix Valley, RESPONSIBLE TOURISM is encouraged to balance the needs of locals, environmental conservation with the demands of tourism... In Chamonix, management involves:

Activity:
Print or copy the table below and complete it by linking the initiatives in the left column to their aims/purposes in the right column.

Activity (HW 16th April 2013): 
a) From page 137 of the course text, find out and make a table to describe the "Tomorrow's Valley" initiative. 

b) Define "SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT"

c) Choose three elements of the initiative and EXPLAIN how/why they support SUSTAINABLE TOURISM.








10 The Impact of Climate Change on Alpine Communities.

Aims: 
To know how climate change threatens Alpine communities dependent on tourism and the need for careful, sustainable management of such fragile Alpine environments.

Global climate is broadly warming up as a result of the pollutants emitted as countries have developed/increased their use of fossil fuels since the mid 19th Century. As this processes continues, many Alpine resorts in places such as Europe are facing a future without snow or with less and less reliable snowfall. Resorts at lower altitudes (around 1000m asl) are particularly threatened as they will 
face these problems the soonest (e.g. Morzine and Megeve in the French Alps).

As temperatures rise and the amount of snow-fall declines, the snow-line rises i.e. the altitude at which snow is present and suitable for skiing gets higher up the mountainside. In these circumstances, resorts at lower altitudes find themselves without snow.

UN estimate that some 50% of resorts will be forced to close by 2050.

Many resorts need to make their own snow using snow cannon. These can use over 1 million litres of water to cover 0.4 ha to 30cm depth. 

To set these up requires laying pipelines to each of the cannon which disturbs the environment during construction and uses vast amounts of local water. Needless to say, this is a very expensive process in more than just economic terms.





Activity:
a) Using the course text, compile a CASE STUDY of Abondance to describe and explain the response to Climate Change in this Alpine Resort.

b) From the WWW collect a series of images that show what Abondance is like and what attracts tourists.







11 The Avalanche Hazard.

Aims: 
To understand the risk that is posed by avalanches in Alpine regions.

To know what factors contribute to avalanche risk and ways that these might be reduced.

Definition- What is an Avalanche?
Avalanches are masses of ice and snow (along with rocks that they dislodge) that cascade or slide downhill. They travel at up to 300kmh.

Avalanches are a hazard when they pose a threat to humans or human activity (e.g. houses, roads, railways and communication systems).

They occur naturally, but the risks may be increased by some human activity.

Types of Avalanche
There are two main types...

• Loose Snow Avalanche - Usually start from a single point on a hillside and involves loose, powdery snow.

View this short video to understand more about Loose Snow Avalanches.

For a little cross-curricular interest... Avalanches as weapons in WWI

• Slab Avalanche - these tend to start at a line that may extend many metres across a snow slope. They are generally more dangerous than Loose Snow Avalanches. They involve a large slab of snow and ice shearing away from the underlying snow layers or rocks of the hillside which then moves rapidly downhill carrying rocks and trees with it. 

          Slab Avalanches are often
          caused by skiers as they carve
          across a slope and in the
          process weaken a 

          surface layer lying over snow
          pack of a different consistency...
          see video

Activity:
Study the image below. Can you spot the various features of the avalanche... what type is it (loose snow or slab?)

Avalanches usually result from a combination of factors although there is usually a single trigger event such as heavy snowfall or an earthquake (see below)... or just the passage of a skier or climber.

Activity:
a) From the text page 142, make your own list of factors that can cause an avalanche.
b) Explain why tree removal can cause avalanches. Why do people remove trees from Alpine areas?
c) Why have the number of casualties from avalanches increased over recent years?
d) What do you think can be done to reduce the number of casualties (realistically)?
e) Read through the two case studies on page 143 of the text. For each, suggest which factors seem to have been important in triggering the avalanches.
f) Complete task 2 on page 143 of the course text.

Homework:
Revise for GCSE Exam question (full section) after Work Experience

Avalanche Activities

Case study - French Alps 2012. Visit the BBC report about the avalanche in July 2012 by clicking HERE

Questions:
1. Outline the location (different scales!).

2. What type of avalanche was it (how do you know).

3. Who was affected - why?

4. What probably caused the avalanche?

Follow the link (HERE) or at the bottom of the BBC report (called "How do avalanches happen")

Questions:
5. Why is Martin dropping dynamite out of a helicopter? What other methods could be used to achieve his objectives?

6. Where did the world's deadliest avalanche take place? Compile a case study about it to include the date, location, causes, its effects and why it was so devastating.

7. From the text book (or digital book) find out how the avalanche hazard can be reduced. Either make a sketch/diagram like that on pp 143 or an illustrated brainstorm to describe and explain the different methods employed.

8. Which approach do you think is best... explain your reasoning.


Case study: The avalanche hazard, Galtür - Using your kerboodle access, go to the above case study. Read through the study and then explain how the Austrian town has now implemented avalanche protection methods. What are they and how effective do you think they will be?